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Introduction: The aim of the study is to research processes of morphological differentiation among
the ancient
inhabitants of southern Siberia in chronological, historical, cultural, and
geographical aspects.
The object of the study are culture-forming processes in the Altai-Sayan
region of Eurasia in the cultural and chronological range from the Neolithic to the Early
Iron Age, inclusive.
The subject of anthropological research are the features of the historical and cultural groups
in the Altai-Sayan upland.
By the mid-20th century were developed several schemes systematizing morphological
diversity of humanity. All of them are based on appearance of the
living people. A number of craniometric parameters are taxonomically important analogues
to salient race-diagnostic cranial and facial features (cranial diameters, size of the
skull facial part, horizontal and vertical angles of face profile, angle of
the nose protrusion), which are successfully used for racial typology of the craniological
material [Debets, 1951].
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In today's nomenclature, substitute for “race” is phenotype, which is not only
less offensive, but also closer to reality, where all “salient” race-diagnostic cranial
and facial features are arbitrarily selected segments of the continuous range,
arbitrarily ascribed to a particular “race”. The same segments found in a different
“race” would not be considered to be “salient”, but rather discounted as aberration. |
Bio-archeological research focuses on various life aspects of the studied population
(nutrition, physical activity, injuries, illnesses, episodic
physiological ontogenetical stresses, human body manipulation methods for ritual
or medicinal purposes, etc.). The methodology uses chemical analysis of bone tissue, description of its histological structure,
computer tomography, and bone radiography. This work summarizes common anthropological
features to determine their
origin. In the late 1990s the Laboratory of Human Genetics at the Institute of Cytology
and Genetics of the Siberian Brunch of the Russian Academy of Sciences joined research on
reconstruction of main vectors in the genetic relationships of the Gorny Altai population
at different stages of historical and cultural human development. They analyzed mitochondrial
DNA samples from ancient populations of Gorny Altai, i.e. of the people of Neolithic
historical and cultural community, Afanasev and Karakol Cultures, and historical-cultural community of the
Early Nomads. The thesis reflects results of correlation between traditional anthropological
group-differentiating complex of craniometrical and odontological traits
with the markers of mitochondrial DNA.
A clinal distribution of genetic markers or anthropological features in the Asian part of
Eurasia was disrupted by historical events that caused movements of large groups of
people, and for the most part these events do not have written information. We only have elements of material culture, often borrowed from neighbors and not always
indicative of the change in population, and morphology of the humans, i.e., the
anthropological type, the arrival of which outside the range of its formation is the most
accurate evidence of migration. The study conducts:
1. Generalization and systematization of paleoanthropological material of archaeological
cultures in accordance with the present state of archaeological sources.
2. A detailed account of the studied ancient Altai-Sayan highlands population groups
by two systems of physical traits - odontological
and craniometrical. This portion of the study fills gaps in the factual material needed
for reconstruction of the race and culture forming processes reflected in the
anthropological evidence in the unique historical, cultural, and geographical region.
3. Determination of population and super-population epochal and local trends in variability of anthropological traits and their complexes in
the southern region of Siberia.
4. Identifying anthropologically close groups in terms of craniometric and
odontological traits to determine geographical, historical, and cultural space
where flowed common race-forming processes.
5. Isolation of main morphological components, i.e. craniological types, of the
Altai-Sayan highlands' population within anthropological composition of the Southern
Siberia region, and their taxonomic assessment.
6. Comparison of the paleoanthropological analysis findings with conclusions of the archaeological
research.
Investigation studied paleoanthropological materials found in the past two decades in
the Southern region of Western Siberia for Neolithic (6th - 5th mill. BC),
Early Metal (2nd mill.
BC - 300AD), Bronze (35/33 — 13/11 cc. BC)
and Early Iron Age (12 ââ. äî í. ý. - 300AD).
Paleoanthropological material for the ancient population of southern Siberia varies for the archaeological eras
of their cultural and
chronological periods and individual cultures. For the Neolithic period
(6th - 5th mill. BC) is typical dispersed distribution of single fragmentary finds
in a wide chronological range across the whole region, originating in single burials or small
cemeteries. Such material is difficult for traditional anthropological analysis.
Researcher is forced to accept typological characteristics of individual
findings and often attribute them to the individual characteristics of a hypothetical
group (paleopopulation or a group of paleopopulations) as a whole. There are problems in
applying methods of group comparison by statistical analysis, since a sample formed
from singular and scattered over a vast area materials does not meet representation criteria.
They also rather are not probabilistic, i.e., based on random and equiprobable selection of individuals from
general population (paleopopulation or a group of paleopopulations) that allow production
of more or less accurate conclusions about
population as a whole. Therefore, a special attention is paid to the formation principles of
the Neolithic samples (6th - 5th mill. BC) fir the analyzed and compared
material.
In the post-Neolithic Era (post-5th mill. BC), the
situation for the researcher improves. The cultures discovered by the present in the region and adjacent areas are mainly represented by
skeletal material from large and fully excavated burials, which allows use of
population-based approach in the methodological toolbox.
The territorial scope of the study includes forest-steppe regions of the West Siberian
Plain, and some of the Altai-Sayan mountain country. The territories of archaeological cultures
in this study are geographically located in the landscape region of
forest-steppe zone between Irtysh and Enisei, punctuated by
areas of steppes and mountains. Territories have continental climate. The contact region of
modern continuous taiga and forest-steppe zone can be taken as a conditional northern
boundary of the region. The paleoanthropological material retrospectively and modern
comes from multiple zones. The forest-steppe zone extending from the Urals to Enisei is punctuated by areas of steppes in the West Siberian
Plain, in the Altai foothills, and in the Kuznetsk Basin. Mountains separate the steppes between Ob and
Enisei, namely the Biy, Kuznetsk, Achinsk, Minusinsk, Abakan, Krasnoyarsk, and Kansk steppes, into separate
island sections. The steppes are located at different
topographic levels, with a variety of morphological and climatic conditions, so they are very
different one from another. At the western foothills of the Altai and Salair ridge ends
the latitudinal extension of the steppe and forest-steppe zones, and begins to appear the high-altitude zone. In the Altai-Sayan mountains
high-altitude belt occupies a large mountain area, with significant differences in this
belt between the Altai, Sayan, and Eastern
Tuva Highlands.
The local landscape variety in the Western Siberia southern region largely
predetermined development of ethno-cultural processes and facets of anthropological
outcome in the different regions which produced paleoanthropological
materials: Baraba province of the West Siberian Plain, Altai area of the Altai-Sayan mountain1233 country, Sayan-Tuva
area of the Altai- Sayan mountain country.
Justification for the choice of this region is in numerously proven
connection across its space of the cultural, ethnic, political, and race-forming processes. Therefore,
the targeted study of the dynamics in anthropological composition of southern Western
Siberia population, if possible, considers this process in the context of synchronic and diachronic
race-forming ethnogenetic events in this region and in the adjacent territories. To
implement this aspect of the study, the author can rely on personal anthropological
examinations of a number of groups that represent population in a
fairly wide range of archaeological cultures within the southern regions of Siberia (a registry
of studied and used paleoanthropological materials is compiled in tabular form). The
comparative anthropological parameters from other researchers, obtained from publications,
is compiled as a listing with indication of archaeological context.
Accumulated to date experience in research of the southern Western Siberia
archaeological cultures, and dispersion and dynamics of the population's anthropological
composition indicates that differentiation of craniological complexes and culture-forming
processes in this region were zonal. Consequently, the areas
of the synchronously developing cultures, and the areas of the anthropological communities
were overlapping and interlaced, and sometimes stretched widely, not only across the
whole Siberia (e.g., cultures of Okunev and Karasuk circle) but also across the entire Eurasian continent (cultures
of Andronov
and Scytho-Siberian Cultural Communities). This conditioned the multipartite
composition of the cultures and anthropological conglomeration of their people. Therefore, very important
methodological principle in the study of southern Siberia is to examine widest
synchronous profiles of the population's anthropological composition against background of diachronic data. Only in that case can
be achieved anthropological
reconstructions that objectively reflect dynamics of the race-forming processes associated with stability, evolutionary transformations,
or blending of different physical
complexes.
Methodology of the study. Anthropological study of population's composition in
any region with complicated ethnic and cultural history at least on some stages requires to
sort out taxonomic problems. The analyzed populations are classed according to
their morphological similarity, that is they are systematically classified. From the
classifications are built hypotheses on the origin of the population exemplified by
paleoanthropological material in the study area and in the study period. The possibility of
taxonomic analysis for the modern samples of Homo sapiens is supported by an
assumption of anthropologically (morphologically) discrete composition of humanity.
Before the end of the
1950s, that was a basic tenet in the methodology of the anthropological science. At present,
many aspects of the mankind intraspecific differentiation are the subject of debate.
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The “assumption of anthropologically (morphologically) discrete composition of humanity”
has never crystallized into concise definition of any race, on every race coexist many
conflicting definitions, and the absence of discrete morphological composition is
predicated on the absence of discrete genetical composition. Every parameter advocated as
defining for a race spills over into other races, or is not universal in the ascribed
race, invalidating it as a scientific criteria. And because race is defined as a set of
certain parameters, the combination of non-discrete parameters results not in a point,
but in a cloud of indeterminable size. |
Of great importance for overcoming the negative attitude of anthropologists (referring to
anthropology in a
broad sense as a general science of mankind that combines knowledge of a variety of the natural sciences and the humanities) to the idea of biologically discrete humanity are the results of anthropo-ecological
direction of research. Formation and
development of this direction in the domestic anthropology is associated with the name of
Tatyana Ivanovna Alexeeva (1928 – 2007). In the anthropo-ecological perspective, the evolution of
humanity as a whole, the history of human populations, and even the lives of individuals
are seen as a series of dynamic adaptation processes to the changing environmental
conditions, which determine the polymorphism of the Homo sapiens species. The methodological
principle of ecological variability of human populations as a leading factor of the
anthropological differentiation of humanity is the basis for this research.
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The concept of environmental adaptation was formulated by T.Alexeeva in 1964, and was
actively developed afterwards, but went out of use with the emergence of modern genetics
and understanding the genetic nature of the inheritance mechanism. On the timescale of
this work, environmental adaptation as a race-forming mechanism is negligible. For
example, even such minor modification as the development of the critical for the survival
of horse husbandry nomads lactose tolerance deviancy took 6,000 years, or 240
generations, to extend to more than 50% of the population. To reach 50% of the population
over 240 generations, half of the people had to die of starvation without propagating
their normal intolerance. And if it took 120 generations to double the proportion from
25% to 50%, hypothetically it would take another 120 generations to go from 50% to 75%,
provided that all environmental effects remain the same, which is a wildly unrealistic
assumption. With the role of milk as a remedy from starvation exhausted, the proportion
of lactose tolerant people would remain stable indefinitely long, as long as conditions
remain the same, which in reality they never are. And lactose is a
simplified example, dependent on only on a single mutation. The color of the skin and
eyes is much more complicated, involving at least four independent mutations. After
150,000 years of travel out of Africa, or 6,000 generations, we still have way more brown
eyes then blue eyes, and no magenta. Essentially, the idea of of environmental
adaptation down to individual level was an extension and perversion of the Marxist social
postulate that social status determines consciousness on a class and individual level. |
One of the major questions in anthropological study of mankind is linked with a role
of social factors in
the differentiation. From the point of view of many researchers in both
physical and cultural anthropology, with the development of the material culture the
feasibility of race formation (i.e. formation of discrete complexes of anthropological
traits) with the increasing role of the artificial environment is decreased, and at the end, in
historical times, this process has stopped. Standardization of the artificial environment
that largely
replaced natural surroundings of humanity promotes biological integration of humanity.
Change in the boundaries of the modern human populations, and growth of the racial mixing
processes leads to gradual “erosion” of the mankind's morphological
differentiation boundaries in the racially mixed group
that. emerged in the historical period do not have new features, occupy interte position between the original
types, and therefore can not be races.
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This is another extension and perversion of the Marxist social postulate, probably
influenced by racist and religious ideas on “us” as a pinnacle and “them” as
lesser creatures, applied to biology. In the example of lactose tolerance, the totally
intolerant “race” is separated from 50% tolerant “race” by 240 generations; every
generation could have claimed to be a pinnacle of evolution where evolution stops. But it
never did. Geographical isolation was a temporary event in the history of any group of
people, it had a start, and it inevitably had an end, returning to the evolutionary
status of racial mixing. We all occupy interte position between the original types,
whatever they are, and therefore can not be races. |
A particular point of view on this problem was developed in the mid-1970s by Valery Pavlovich Alekseev (Alexeev, 1976, 1977). It was the fact that social factors - in
particular the level of development of productive forces and associated level of
social development, social stratification of society, prevailing in different societies marriage
traditions, ethnic boundaries, political boundaries, socio-psychological patterns of behavior -
contribute to the humanity biological differentiation predicated by genetic barriers they create. Inside the mixing or mixed populations
the insulating factors grow more effective, and stable complexes heritable morphological traits
are formed. This view has been
subjected to criticism, which denied conceptually any chance for race formation at the
present stage of human development. In reality, we do observe epochal changes in the
anthropology of humanity, finding physical types that emerged relatively recently -
in the Middle Ages.
The differentiating role of social factors in anthropological divergence of humanity
is laid as
the basis for this work, as one of the most important methodological principles.
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If that was true, it would wrongly invalidate the whole study. |
At a stage in investigation, inevitably comes up a problem of finding physical markers for the
detected complexes that correspond to segments in the anthropological classifications.
In this regard is important understanding of the race or physical type
(phenotype) as a historical
category, as an episode of emerging form existing at a particular time interval. It is important
to emphasize that the paleoanthropological material can neither be limited to the scope of
contemporary racial diversity of humanity, nor reduced to the major adaptive complexes of
the Upper Paleolithic - Mesolithic (primary races). The history of racial complexes
does not have a single direction - it is not an evolutionary process leading entire
population to the modern races: some races have disappeared, some have survived, but
carry features of epochal shifts (gracilization, brachiocephalization), there are races resulted from mixing of
formerly existing distinct racial complexes, and finally, there
are races that have survived unchanged for millennia.
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The concept of “primary races” is resting on the vision of contemporary racial diversity
of humanity projected back into the Upper . Probably, the Paleolithic - Mesolithic people
would define “primary races” quite differently. |
And it is logical that sooner or later, unveiling potential inherent in
the paleoanthropological materials raises a need to define new taxons to systemize the ancient
cranial types. This issue arose before the author in interpretation of
paleoanthropological parameters from the territory of Siberia. A methodological approach to
solving the issue became an understanding of race or physical anthropological type as a historical category.
Correction of the existing anthropological classification for ancient cranial types,
inevitable with the spectral expansion of the morphological trait complexes, is
needed in principle, and also in respect to the application: without a corrected system, researchers often
do not understand each other, embedding in the same formulations quite different meanings.
This paper summarizes new materials on paleo-anthropology of the southern region in Western Siberia. It
identifies epochal, regional, and local trends in
formation of a wide range of anthropological cultures. It introduces into scientific
circulation new anthropological data, and obtained from its interpretation
results extend the possibilities for the studies of race- and ethnogenesis of indigenous peoples of
Siberia, allowing forge an objective foundation for many reconstructions related to the
formation of the archeological cultures. These materials are a valuable base for
improving morphological
diversity classification for ancient and modern human groups.
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Abbreviations (not proofread)
ASU Altai State University
AJ - Anthropological Journal
AD - archaeological
discoveries
SPU Barnaul State Pedagogical University
VDI Bulletin of ancient history
BAH. BA Anthropology Matters
IEA Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology
KZIA Brief reports of the Institute of Archaeology
KZIE Brief reports of the Institute of Ethnography
BZIHMC Brief reports of the Institute of History of Material Culture
IFSP Institute of Northern Development
MSU Moscow State University
MIA materials and research on the archeology of the USSR
MNEPU International Independent Ecological-ïîëèòîëîãè÷åñêèéóíèâåðñèòåò
RIYLL Research Institute of Language and Literature History
OSU Omsk State University
RAJ Russian anthropological jurnal.
SA Soviet arheology.
SE Soviet ethnography
TGU Tomsk State University
TIE Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography
STACE South Turkmenistan Archaeological Complex Expedition |
