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Scythian warriors, drawn after figures on an electrum cup from the Kul'Oba kurgan burial near Kerch. The warrior on the right strings his bow, bracing it behind his knee; note the typical pointed hood, long jacket with fur or fleece trimming at the edges, decorated trousers, and short boots tied at the ankle. Scythss apparently normally wore their hair long and loose, and all adult men apparently wore beards. The gorytos appears clearly on the left hip of the bare-headed spearman; his companion has an interesting shield, perhaps representing a plain leather covering over a wooden or wicker base. (Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg)

Scythia comprised an area in Eurasia whose location and extent varied over time. Scythians at various times inhabited:

• the Caucasus area, including Azerbaijan, Georgia
• Central Asian steppes: Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan
• the Altay Mountains region where present-day Mongolia, China, Russia, and Kazakhstan come together
• the valleys of the Indus (Sinthos), Jehlum (Hydaspes), Chenab (Acesines) and Sutlej (Zaradros) rivers in the area that subsequently became Pakistan and North-Western India.
• the southern Ukraine with the lower Danube river area and Bulgaria.

Origins

Carbon-14 dating of the Scythian kurgans has allowed archaeologists to trace their emergence in the Sayan-Altay mountainous area from about 3,000 BC to about 500 BC, and their westward spread starting about 900 BC.

At the begining of the 70s of the 7th century, the Scythians led by Ishpaki (Old Iranian *Spakaaya) in alliance with the Mannaens attacked Assyria. The group first appears in Assyrian annals as by the name Ishkuzai. According to the brief assertion of Esarhaddon's inscription, the alliance was defeated by the Assyrian empire. Subsequent mention of Scythians in Babylonian and Assyrian texts is mentioned in connection with Media from the century. During the Achaemenid empires they are mentioned in the Old Persian and the Greek sources. In the Greek sources they are mentioned in the steppe between the Dnieper and Don rivers.

The ancient Greek historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus describes the Kimmerioi or Cimmerians (Gimirru in Assyrian annals) as a distinct autochthonous tribe, expelled by the Scythians, of the northern Black Sea coast (Hist. 4.11-12). Herodotus then goes further to state that "the Hellenes gave them" the name Scythians, and that the Scythians called themselves Scolotoi; and that Scolotoi, in turn, referred in general to several distinct tribes: Auchatai, Catiaroi, Traspians, and finally Paralatai or "Royal Scythians". Throughout his work Herodotus specifically distinguished between the nomadic Scythians in the South and agricultural Scythians to the North.

As of 2006 no consensus exists regarding these different Scythian subdivisions. ^{[citation needed]} The Western school of thought generally ignores Herodotus' distinction, and views all Scythians as a single group that spread throughout Greater Scythia, and eventually split into distinct cultures.^{[citation needed]}

The pro-Slavic school of thought, following Boris Rybakov, claims that the nomadic Scythians of Herodotus had Iranian origins, while seeing the northern agricultural Scythians as proto-Slavs, ruled by Scythian chieftains. Rybakov points out the incompatibility in life-styles with boundaries between nomads and farmers and their distinct burial customs remaining constant throughout the centuries of the Scythians' existence. Rybakov also stresses the similarities between the agricultural Scythian culture and the later Slavic culture. The Scythian creation-myth recorded by Herodotus also points to farmers rather than nomads, as it centers around a plough; and while it has no parallels within Iranian folklore, folklorists recorded a virtually unchanged version as a Russian folktale in the 19th century.^{[citation needed]}

Archaeology

Archaeological remains of the Scythians include kurgan tombs (ranging from simple exemplars to elaborate "Royal kurgans" containing the "Scythian triad" of weapons, horse-harness, and Scythian-style wild-animal art), gold, silk, and animal sacrifices, in places also with suspected human sacrifices. Mummification techniques and permafrost have aided in the relative preservation of some remains. Scythian archaeology also examines the remains of North Pontic Scythian cities and fortifications.

Carbon-14 dating of the Scythian kurgans has allowed archaeologists to trace their emergence in the Sayan-Altay mountainous area from about 3,000 BC to about 500 BC, and their westward spread starting about 900 BC.

Archaeologists can distinguish three periods of ancient Scythian archaeological remains:

• 1st period - pre-Scythian and initial Scythian epoch: from the 9th to the middle of the 7th centuries BC
• 2nd period - early Scythian epoch: from the 7th to the 6th centuries BC
• 3rd period - classical Scythian epoch: from the 5th to the 4th centuries BC

From the 8th century BC to the 2nd century BC archeology records a split into two distinct settlement areas: the older in the Sayan-Altai area in Central Asia, and the younger in the North Pontic area in Eastern Europe (A. Yu. Alekseev et al., "Chronology of Eurasian Scythian Antiquities...").

Tamgas

Scythian tribes and clans have left behind them as important ethnological markers - their tamgas, or brand marks which identify individual possession — a must for pastoral societies with shared grazing ranges. Tamgas allow reconstruction of movements and family links where no written records have survived.

Besides identifying property, tamgas marked participation of members of the clan in collective actions (treaties, religious ceremonies, fraternization, public functions), and served as symbols of authority for minting coins. The tamga forms stayed unchanged for about 2000 years within kindred ethnic groups, but after the decline of some famous clan another clan would adopt its tamga.

Wide use of tamgas originated from western Turkestan and Mongolia no later than the beginning of 6th сentury ВС. Analysis of tamgas for most powerful clans and for the kings of the Bosporus has allowed scholars to define precisely their genealogy and their relations with territories from where their forefathers migrated to Europe: Chorasm, Kang-Kü, Bactria, Sogdiana (S. A. Yatsenko, Tamgas ...).

There is an alternative point of view. Tamgas are a real script consisting of syllables and several logograms. The language (dialects) of the Scythians, Sarmatians and Meotians (Sindi) is closely related to the Old Indian (Sanskrit, Indo-Aryan) language, though some elements of this language are connected with the Iranian and other Indo-European languages (S. V. Rjabchikov, Skify ...).

Kurgans

Main article: Kurgans

Kurgans^[1] appear frequently as Scythian historical phenomena. Well-known kurgans include the "royal kurgan" groups, Arjan in Tuva, Pazyryk in Central Asia, Seven Brothers in the Kuban, Ust-Khadynnyg, Kelermess and Novozaved, Steblev group, Uash-khitu (Europe), Bashadar and Tuekta kurgans in Sayan-Altai, Maiemir and Issyk kurgans in eastern Kazakhstan, Khystaglar, Large Erba, Kazanov-3 and Shaman Mountain kurgans in Southern Siberia. Most of the ancient kurgans, regarded by people with kurgan traditions as permanent cemeteries, saw re-use again after their original owners abandoned them. Kurgan Issyk preserved a silver dish with a Scythian inscription (A. Amanjolov, "History Of The Ancient...")

Scythian language

Main article: Scythian language

Herodotus (Hist, book 4) specifically records that European Scythians spoke multiple languages.

Scholars generally regard the Scythians as Iranian nomadic peoples, speaking an Iranian language. ^{[2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7][8][9][10][11] [12][13][14][15]}

Some scholars ascribe certain "runic" inscriptions found in Eastern Europe and Central Asia to the Scythians, but apart from that no Scythian texts survive; however, the personal names found in the contemporary Greek literary and epigraphic texts suggest that the language of the Scythians and the Sarmatians (who spoke a dialect of Scythian according to Herodotus, Hist. 4.117) has strong similarities to well-attested Eastern Iranian dialects such as Sogdian, modern Ossetic and Pashto. Note that some scholars believe that the Pashtuns probably descend from the Scythians.[7]

Contemporaries also commonly referred to the subject peoples in the periphery steppes as "Scythians", but that does not necessarily mean that they spoke Iranian languages as did the Scythians proper. Priscus, the Byzantine emissary to Attila, referred to Attila's followers repeatedly as "Scythians"; some of the Huns may have had Scythian ancestry.

Naming and etymology

According to Herodotus (Hist. 4.6), the Scythians called themselves Skolotoi. The Greek Skythēs probably reflects an older rendering of the very same name, *Skuδa- (whereas Herodotus transcribes the unfamiliar [ð] as Λ; -toi represents the North-east Iranian plural ending -ta). The word originally means "shooter, archer", and it ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *skeud- "to shoot, throw" (compare English shoot). ^[16]

The Sogdians' name for themselves, Swγδ, probably represents the same name (*Skuδa > *Suγuδa with an anaptyctic vowel). The name also occurs in Assyrian in the form Aškuzai or Iškuzai "Scythian". This name may have provided the source of biblical Hebrew Ashkenaz (original *אשכוז ’škuz got misspelled as אשכנז ’šknz), later a Jewish name of the Germanic areas of Central Europe and hence a self-descriptor of the Central European Jews who lived there among the Ashkenazim (Germans).

The Old Persians used another name for the Scythians, namely Saka, which perhaps derived from the Iranian verbal root sak- "to go, to roam", i.e. "wanderer, nomad".

The Chinese knew the Saka (Asian Scythians) as Sai (Chinese character: 塞, Old Sinitic *sək).

Scythian society

Scythians lived in confederated tribes, a political form of voluntary association which regulated pastures and organized a common defence against encroaching neighbors for the pastoral tribes of mostly equestrian herdsmen. While the productivity of domesticated animal breeding was much higher than of the settled agricultural societies, the pastroral economy also needed a supplemental agricultural produce, and stable nomadic confederations developed either symbiotic, or forced alliances with sedentiary peoples, in exchange for animal produce and military protection. They invaded many areas in the steppes of Eurasia, including areas in present-day Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, southern Ukraine and southern Russia. Ruled by small numbers of closely-allied élites, Scythians had a reputation for their archers, and many gained employment as mercenaries.

Scythian élites had kurgan tombs: high barrows heaped over chamber-tombs of larch-wood — a deciduous conifer that may have had special significance as a tree of life-renewal, for it stands bare in winter. Burials at Pazyryk in the Altay Mountains have included some spectacularly preserved Scythians of the "Pazyryk culture" — including the "Ice Maiden" of the 5th century BC.

Scythian women dressed in much the same fashion as the men, and at times fought alongside them in battle. A Pazyryk burial found in the 1990s confirms this. It contained the skeletons of a man and a woman, each with weapons, arrowheads, and an axe. "The woman was dressed exactly like a man. This shows that certain women, probably young and unmarried, could be warriors, literally Amazons. It didn't offend the principles of nomadic society", according to one of the archaeologists interviewed for the 1998 NOVA documentary "Ice Mummies".

Scythian warrior-women have become popular contenders for the honour of having inspired the Greek myths of the Amazons. The work of Jeannine Davis-Kimball (Secrets of the Dead August 4, 2004) provides archaeological and genetic evidence that the Sarmatians may have provided the source of the Greek tales.

As far as we know, the Scythians had no writing system. Until recent archaeological developments, most of our information about them came from the Greeks. The Ziwiye hoard, a treasure of gold and silver metalwork and ivory found near the town of Sakiz south of Lake Urmia and dated to between 680 and 625 BC, includes objects with Scythian "animal style" features. One silver dish from this find bears some inscriptions, as yet undeciphered and so possibly representing a form of Scythian writing.

Homer called the Scythians "the mare-milkers". Herodotus described them in detail: their costume consisted of padded and quilted leather trousers tucked into boots, and open tunics. They rode with no stirrups or saddles, just saddle-cloths. Herodotus reports that Scythians used cannabis, both to weave their clothing and to cleanse themselves in its smoke (Hist. 4.73-75); archaeology has confirmed the use of cannabis in funeral rituals. The Scythian philosopher Anacharsis visited Athens in the 6th century BC and became a legendary sage. Scythians also had reputations for their usage of barbed and poisoned arrows of several types, for a nomadic life centered around horses — "fed from horse-blood" according to Herodotus — and for skill in guerrilla warfare. Some see the Scythians as the first to tame the horse and to use it in combat as well^{[citation needed]} (compare Domestication of the horse).

Scythians in the historical record

Overview

Gold clothing appliqué, showing two Scythian archers, 400 to 350 BCE. Probably from Kul Oba, Crimea. British Museum.

Carbon-14 dating of the Scythian kurgans has allowed archaeologists to trace their emergence in the Sayan-Altay mountainous area from about 3,000 BC to about 500 BC, and their westward spread starting about 900 BC (A. Yu. Alekseev et al., "Chronology of Eurasian Scythian Antiquities...").

To date, no widely-accepted explanation exists for the origin of the Scythians, nor of how they migrated to the Caucasus and Ukraine; but many scholars conjecture that they migrated westward from Central Asia between 800 BC and 600 BC.

Herodotus gives the name of the land where the Scythians originated as Gerrhos. They would prepare their dead and travel with them long distances to bring them for burial in Gerrhos.

The first Assyrian records to mention the Iskuzai date from around the end of the 8th century BC. Herodotus even confirms that the Scythian king Partatua had an alliance with Assyria, and that the Mannai recognized him. In 653 BC, Partatua's son Madius (Madyes), at the request of Ashurbanipal of Assyria, defeated the king of the Medes, Phraortes (Kshathrita), assuming control over the Medes until 625 BC. By the end of his reign he had led the Scythians and the Cimmerians (apparently close relatives) on a pillaging spree, overrunning and plundering Assyria, Anatolia, Northern Syria, Phoenicia, Damascus, and Philistia. They plundered the Temple of Venus in Ashkelon.

After 625, however, the Scythians left the Median Empire — historians debate whether they did so voluntarily, or suffered expulsion. At any rate, following the Mede sack of Assur in 614 BC, they had to switch sides and ally themselves with the Medes. They comprised part of the force that sacked Nineveh 612 BC. Some time afterwards, the Scythians returned to the steppes.

In 512 BC, when king Darius the Great of Persia attacked the Scythians (agathyrses;geatas), he apparently reached them by crossing the Danube. Herodotus relates that as nomads, the Scythians succeeded in frustrating the designs of the Persian army by letting them march through the entire country without an engagement. According to Herodotus, Darius in this manner reached as far as the Volga river.

During the 5th to 3rd centuries BC the Scythians evidently prospered. When Herodotus wrote his Histories in the 5th century BC, Greeks distinguished a 'Greater Scythia' that extended a 20-day ride from the Danube River in the west, across the steppes of today's Ukraine to the lower Don basin, from 'Scythia Minor'. The Don, then known as Tanaïs, has served as a major trading route ever since. The Scythians apparently obtained their wealth from their control over the slave trade from the north to Greece through the Greek Black Sea colonial ports. They also grew grain, and shipped wheat, flocks, and cheese to Greece.

The Crimean Scythians created a kingdom extending from the lower Dnieper to the Crimea. Their capital city, Scythian Neapol, stood on the outskirts of modern Simferopol. (The Goths destroyed it much later, in the 5th century AD.)

The Hermitage Museum has preserved by far the greatest collection of Scythian gold, including one of the most famous of all Scythian finds: the golden comb, featuring a battle-scene, from the 4th century Solokha royal burial mound.

In the southeasternmost corner of the plains, north of the woods of Thrace, Philip II of Macedon settled Macedonian trading towns along routes as far north as the Danube during the 330s BC (Fox 1973). Greek craftsmen from the colonies north of the Black Sea made spectacular Scythian-style gold ornaments (see below), applying Greek realism to depict Scythian motifs of lions, antlered reindeer and gryphons. Hellenic-Scythian contact focused on the Hellenistic cities and settlements of the Crimea (especially in the Bosporan Kingdom).

Shortly after 300 BC, the Celts seem to have displaced the Scythians from the Balkans, while in south Russia a kindred tribe, the Sarmatians, gradually overwhelmed them.

Scythians in classical sources

Approximate extent of Scythia and Sarmatia in the 1st century BC.

Starting with the father of history, Herodotus, numerous classical authors mention Scythians. For millennia, a long string of historical references specifically linked Herodotus’ Scythians with various Türkic tribes, such as the Huns, Türks, Khazars etc (G. Moravcsik, Byzantinoturcica II, p.236-39)^{[citation needed]}. Between 400 CE and the 16th century the Byzantine sources call use the name Σκΰθαι in reference to twelve different Türkic peoples (G. Moravcsik, Byzantinoturcica II, p.236-39). (G. Moravcsik, Byzantinoturcica II, p.236-39^{[citation needed]} In the 1st century BCE, the Greek geographer Strabo gives an extensive description of the eastern Scythians, whom he located in north-eastern Asia beyond Bactria and Sogdiana:

"Then comes Bactriana, and Sogdiana, and finally the Scythian nomads." (Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1)

He goes on to list the names of the various tribes among the Scythians, probably making an amalgam with some of the tribes of eastern Central Asia (such as the Tochari):

"Now the greater part of the Scythians, beginning at the Caspian Sea, are called Dahae, but those who are situated more to the east than these are named Massagetae and Sacae, whereas all the rest are given the general name of Scythians, though each people is given a separate name of its own. They are all for the most part nomads.

But the best known of the nomads are those who took away Bactriana from the Greeks (i.e. Greco-Bactrians), I mean the Asii, Pasiani, Tochari, and Sacarauli, who originally came from the country on the other side of the Jaxartes River that adjoins that of the Sacae and the Sogdiani and was occupied by the Sacae.

And as for the Däae, some of them are called Aparni, some Xanthii, and some Pissuri. Now of these the Aparni are situated closest to Hyrcania and the part of the sea that borders on it, but the remainder extend even as far as the country that stretches parallel to Aria." (Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1)

Sakas

Main article: Sakas

Asians, especially Persians, knew the Scythians in Asia as Sakas. The Indo-Scythians had the name "Shaka" in South Asia, an extension on the name "Saka". Herodotus describes them as Scythians, called by a different name:

"The Sacae, or Scyths, were clad in trousers, and had on their heads tall stiff caps rising to a point. They bore the bow of their country and the dagger; besides which they carried the battle-axe, or sagaris. They were in truth Amyrgian (Western) Scythians, but the Persians called them Sacae, since that is the name which they gave to all Scythians." (Herodotus VII. 64)

Shakas receive numerous mentions in texts like the Puranas, the Manusmriti, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Mahabhasiya of Patanjali, the Brhat Samhita of Vraha Mihira, the Kavyamimamsa, the Brihat-Katha-Manjari, the Katha-Saritsagara and several other old texts. The accounts typically group Scythians as part of an amalgam of other war-like tribes from the northwest.

Although the Shakas had a reputation as fierce and war-like, one of the greatest sages of peace, the Buddha, descended from this tribe: he had the title Shakyamuni which means "Shaka monk".

Indo-Scythians

Silver coin of the Indo-Scythian King Azes II (r.c. 35-12 BC). Note the royal tamga on the coin.

Main article: Indo-Scythians

A group of Scythian tribes migrated into Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, and finally into the Punjab and the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, between the middle of the 2nd century BC and the 1st century BC. The literature eventually came to refer to these peoples as Indo-Scythians.

The migrations in 175-125 BC of the White Hun (Kushan) (Chinese "Yuezhi") tribes, who originally lived in modern Gansu before the Huns (Chinese "Xiongnu") tribes disloged them, displaced the Indo-Scythians from Central Asia. Led by their king Maues, they ultimately settled in modern-day Pakistan from around 85 BC, where they replaced the kingdom of the Indo-Greeks by the time of Azes II (reigned circa 35 - 12 BCE). Kushans again overran in the 1st century, but the Indo-Scythian rule persisted in some areas of Central India until the 5th century.

See main article: Invasion of India by Scythian Tribes

Agathyrsi Scythians

Agathyrsi is one of the two Scythian tribes that can be traced in literary sources from the 6th c. BC to the present. Herodotus provided description of the 6th c. BC great Scythian nomadic empire and Agathyrsi Scythians, and elaborately recounted the expedition (516 - 513 BC) of Persian king Darius Hystapes (522-486 BC) against Scythians in the N. Pontic (Herodotus 4.10, 4.48, 4.49, 4.78, 4.100, 4.102, 4.104, 4.119, 4.125). Herodotus mentioned Agathyrsi together with another tribe, Geloni. Agathyrsi, who were noted for their love of jewelry, refused to join a fight against Persians unless directly provoked, which highlighted the autonomy and voluntary association of the members of the Scythian confederation. The writer of 2nd c. AD Claudius Ptolemy places Agathyrs and Savars, another easily traceable tribe, in the N.Pontic. Ca. 380 AD, Ammianus Marcellinus in Res Gestae Ch. 22, 8 writes that beyond the palus Maeotis together with Geloni live Agathyrsi, among whom there is an abundance of adamantine stones. Further, he writes that over the border from Geloni are Agathyrsi, who tattoo their bodies and dye their hair blue, the common people with a few small, but the nobles with many large marks (Amm. 31, 2, 1-11). Ammianus also describes the Alanian empire that the Alans cobbled together before the end of the 2nd c. AD, that by repeated victories Alans incorporated under their own national name Geloni, Agathyrsi, Melanchlaeni, Anthropophagi, Amazons, and Seres.

An interesting tidbit comes from Servius on Aenid 4.v.146, that probably closer to 300 AD the Agathyrsi sent across a sea a contingent to Scotland, where it became identified with Picts, who were formidable warriors and seriously fatigued all who stood against them. Traditionally, the Picts are depicted as wearing conical hats and speaking language incompehensible to local Indo-Europeans.

Next we find Akatziri mentioned by Prisco di Panion in Vol XI, 823, who encountered Agathyrs leading nomadic life north of Black Sea during the 5th century, and reported them as being Hunnic tribes. A bit later, Priscus in his Byzantine History finds Agathyrs as Hunnish subjects in pre-Attila time, and a main force of Hun's army in the Attila time. Attila appointed Karidach as Akatzirs' Khan. Jordanes, who quotes Priscus in Getica, described the European Agathyrs as extremely brave people.

After the death of Attila and fracture of the Hunnish empire, a coalition of the Bulgarian tribes defeated Agathyrs in a battle for supremacy, and incorporated them in their empire, known in the 7th c. as "Great Bulgaria". In the following centuries, the N.Pontic steppes were dominated in turns by Khazars, Badjanaks, Oguzes, Kipchaks, Mongolo-Tatars, and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During the Middle Ages, Agathyrs poped out again in the Seljuk Anatolia. In the 15th century a branch of Agach-Eriler (Türkic pl. of Agacher), who lived in the region of Marash-Elbistan in Central Anatolia, immigrated to Safavid (Azeri dynasty) Persia. Until nowadays this branch of Agachers has survived in Iran.

Agathyrsi were a people of Scythian^{[citation needed]}, Thracian, or mixed Thraco-Scythic origin, who in the time of Herodotus occupied the plain of the Maris (Mures), in the region now known as Transylvania.

Herodotus provided a description of the great nomadic Scythian empire of the sixth century BC and the Agathyrsi Scythians, and elaborately recounted the expedition (516 - 513 BC) of Darius I of Persia (522-486 BC) against the Scythians in the N. Pontic (See Herodotus 4.10, 4.48, 4.49, 4.78, 4.100, 4.102, 4.104, 4.119, 4.125). ^{[citation needed]}

Herodotus mentioned the Agathyrsi together with another tribe, the Geloni. The Agathyrsi, who were noted for their love of jewelry, refused to join a fight against Persians unless directly provoked, which highlighted the autonomy and voluntary association of the members of the Scythian confederation. ^{[citation needed]}

Herodotus records the name of Spargapeithes, a King of the Agathyrsi. He also reported that Greeks viewed Agathyrsi, Gelons, and Scythians as brothers. They are described by Herodotus as of luxurious habits, wearing many gold ornaments (the district is still auriferous) and having wives in common (Herod. 4. 104). Herodotus recorded the Pontic Greek myth that he Agathyrsi were named after a legendary ancestor Agathyrsus, a son of Hercules and the monster Echidna (Herod. 4. 8-11).

They tattooed their bodies, degrees of rank being indicated by the manner in which this was done, and colored their hair dark blue. Like the Gallic Druids, they recited their laws in a kind of sing-song to prevent their being forgotten, a practice still in existence in the days of Aristotle.

The Roman geographer Pomponius Mela (2,i) and the historian Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, also list the Agathyrsi among the steppe tribes. Pliny alludes to their "blue hair."^[1]

In later times, the Agathyrsi were driven farther north. The 2nd century geographer Claudius Ptolemy lists the Agathyrsi among tribes in 'European Sarmatia', between the Vistula and the Black Sea ^[2]

Ca. 380 AD, Ammianus Marcellinus in Res Gestae Ch. 22, 8 writes that beyond the palus Maeotis (Black Sea) together with Geloni live Agathyrsi, among whom there is an abundance of adamantine stones.^[3] Further, he writes that over the border from Geloni are Agathyrsi, who tattoo their bodies and dye their hair blue, the common people with a few small, but the nobles with many large marks (Amm. 31, 2, 1-11)^[4]Ammianus also describes the Alanian empire that the Alans cobbled together before the end of the 2nd century, and that by repeated victories the Alans incorporated under their own national name the Geloni, Agathyrsi, Melanchlaeni, Anthropophagi, Amazons, and Seres ^{[citation needed]}.

Servius on Aenid 4.v.146 relates that probably closer to 300 AD the Agathyrsi sent across a sea a contingent to Scotland, where it became identified with Picts, who were formidable warriors and seriously fatigued all who stood against them.^[5] The sixteenth century British chronicler Raphael Holinshed also mentioned the Agathyrsi origin of the Picts and their tradition of painting their bodies blue.

Acatziri (moved and distorted version)

An old theory of 19th century writers (Latham, V. St. Martin, Rambaud, Newman) which according to the 20th century Encyclopedia Britannica is based on less convincing proof suggested an identification of the Agathyrsi with the later Agaziri or Acatziri first mentioned by Priscus in Vol XI, 823 and Byzantine History^{[citation needed]}, who described them leading a nomadic life on the Lower Volga, and reported them as having been Hunnic subjects in pre-Attila time^{[citation needed]}. This older theory is not mentioned at all by modern scholars Helfen or Golden. According to E.A. Thompson, the conjecture that connects the Agathyrsi with Akatziri should be rejected outright. ^[6]

The Acatziri were a main force of the Attila's army in 448. Attila appointed Karidach as the Akatzirs' Khan.^{[citation needed]}.

 

Jordanes, who quotes Priscus in Getica, located the Acatziri to the south of the Aesti (Balts) — roughly the same region as the Agathyrsi of Transylvania — and he described them as "a very brave tribe ignorant of agriculture, who subsist on their flocks and by hunting."^[7]

"Scythians" and "Scythian culture"

Herodotus and other classical historians list quite a number of tribes who lived near the Scythians, and presumably shared the same general milieu and nomadic steppe culture, often called "Scythian culture", even though scholars may have difficulties in determining their exact relationship to the "linguistic Scythians". A partial list of these tribes includes the Agathyrsi, Geloni, Budini, Neuri...

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Scythians and China

Chinese jade and steatite plaques, in the Scythian-style animal art of the steppes. 4th-3rd century BC. British Museum.

Ancient influences from Central Asia became identifiable in China following contacts of metropolitan China with nomadic western and northwestern border territories from the 8th century BC. Gold entered China from Central Asia between the 8th and the 7th centuries, and Chinese jade-carvers began to make imitations of the designs of the steppes. The Chinese adopted the Scythian-style animal art of the steppes (descriptions of animals locked in combat), particularly the rectangular belt-plaques made of gold or bronze, and created their own versions in jade and steatite.

Following their expulsion by the Yuezhi, some Scythians may also have migrated to the area of Yunnan in southern China. Excavations of the prehistoric art of the Dian civilization of Yunnan have revealed hunting scenes of Caucasoid horsemen in Central Asian clothing (Mallory and Mair, The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West, 2000).

Scythians in the Bible

The people mentioned briefly as "Ashkenaz" — perhaps as a result of ancient Hebrew alphabet misreading: אשכנז instead of the correct אשכוז (= Ashkūz), in Genesis x. 3 and I Chronicles i. 6 — trace back through Gomer to Noah's third son, Japheth. The Book of Jeremiah li. 27, 28, mentions Ashkenaz in connection with the kingdoms of Ararat and Minni (in the Taurus Mountains), together with the Medes — and portrays them all as hostile to Babylon. In the Middle Ages Jewish communities revived the name Ashkenaz to mean first the Teutons, then the Ashkenazi Jews. Biblical connections with Scythians rest on a number of assumptions.

The term "Scythian" itself also appears in the 1st Century AD Epistle of St. Paul to the Colossians (3:11).

During the Hellenistic period, the site of the present-day Israeli town of Beit Shean had a Greek population and was called Scythopolis, city of Scythians. In 64 BCE it was taken by the Romans, rebuilt, and made the capital of the Decapolis, the "Ten Cities" of Samaria that were centers of Greco-Roman culture.

Putative Scythian peoples

Although the Scythians had allegedly disappeared in the 1st century BC, Eastern Romans continued to speak conventionally of "Scythians" to designate mounted Eurasian nomadic barbarians in general: in 448 AD two mounted "Scythians" led the emissary Priscus to Attila's encampment in Pannonia. The Byzantines in this case carefully distinguished the Scythians from the Goths and Huns who also followed Attila.

The Sarmatians, the Alans, and finally the Ossetes counted as Scythians in the broadest sense of the word — as speakers of Northeast Iranian languages — but nevertheless remain distinct from the Scythians proper. The Ossetes, the only Iranian people presently resident in Europe, call their country Ironiston or Iron, though North Ossetia now officially has the designation Alania. They speak an North-Eastern Iranian language Ossetic, whose more widely-spoken dialect, Iron or Ironig (i.e. Iranian), preserves some similarities with the Gathic Avestan language, another Iranian language of the Eastern branch. At the same time, it has a number of words remarkably similar to their modern German equivalents, such as THAU (tauen, "to thaw, as snow") and GAU ("district", "region").

Traditions of the Turkic Kazakhs and Yakuts (who call themselves "Sakha"), the Pashtuns and Gujjars in Pakistan and Afghanistan and the Marathas of India connect these peoples to Scythian origins. Some legends of the Picts; the Gaels; the Hungarians; Serbs and Croats (among others) also include mention of Scythian origins.

One cannot say with certainty that all of those variously referred to as Scythians or Saka spoke Iranian languages, or that they descended genetically from the stock of Iranian's original speakers. They may have only had an Iranian-speaking élite, with the peoples they dominated speaking Proto-Germanic, Proto-Slavic, Indo-Aryan, and/or even Tocharian (this could explain the presence of Tocharian in the east). See Non-Indo-European roots of Germanic languages and Mathematical approaches to comparative linguistics.

• See Fox, Robin Lane, 1973. Alexander the Great. ISBN 0-14-008878-4.

Genetic and archeological research

The genetic argument

Genetic research in modern populations reveals that the same paternal Y-chromosome haplogroup (R1a) represents a genetic lineage currently found in central, western and south Asia, and in Slavic populations of Europe. The simplest explanation of this distribution involves this Y-chromosome mutation originating in people of the kurgan-building culture of traditional Scythia (see link).

However, haplogroups H, J2, R1b and L also appear in populations of Iran, Pakistan, Central Asia and India, and the idea that R1a1 originates from Kurgan Culture remains questionable, since haplogroups I and E appear completely absent in India (although common in Europe, particularly in Ukraine)^{[citation needed]}.

"Pazyryk culture"

Horseman, Pazyryk felt artifact, c.300 BC.

For further information see Pazyryk.

Some of the first Bronze Age Scythian burials documented by modern archaeologists include the kurgans at Pazyryk in the Ulagan district of the Altay Republic, south of Novosibirsk in the Altay Mountains of southern Siberia. Archaeologists have extrapolated the Pazyryk culture from these finds: five large burial mounds and several smaller ones between 1925 and 1949, one opened in 1947 by Russian archeologist Sergei Rudenko. The burial mounds concealed chambers of larch logs covered over with large cairns of boulders and stones.

Pazyryk culture flourished between the 7th and 3rd centuries BC in a mountain fastness known as territory belonging to a group of Scythians who may have called themselves Sacae. It formed the seat of the larger of two related Scythian groups.

All the things a Scythian might use or need in this life went into the tomb as grave goods for use in the next. The rich or powerful had horses sacrificed and buried with them. Ordinary Pazyryk graves contain only common utensils, but in one, among other treasures, archaeologists found the famous Pazyryk Carpet, the oldest surviving wool-pile oriental rug. Rudenko summed up the cultural context at one point:

All that is known to us at the present time about the culture of the population of the High Altay, who have left behind them the large cairns, permits us to refer them to the Scythian period, and the Pazyryk group in particular to the fifth century BC. This is supported by radiocarbon dating.

In the Soviet climate of 'science' used as propaganda, Rudenko could not stress the cultural similarities between Pazyryk culture and the Scythians from the Kuban in European Russia and the lower Dnieper Valley in Ukraine. Even in modern times the obvious blond hair and white skin on the frozen "Ice Maiden" and other burials do not get a mention in the Nova segment devoted to these burials. The Altay Republic today takes considerable pride in the likelihood that the ancient culture studied by Rudenko formed the ethnic stock ancestral to many nomadic tribes of today, including modern Altaic peoples, Kirgiz, and Kazakhs.

Scythian Gelonus (modern Bel'sk near Poltava)

Herodotus tells of an enormous city, Gelonus, in the northern part of Scythia (4.108):

"The Budini are a large and powerful nation: they have all deep blue eyes, and bright red hair. There is a city in their territory, called Gelonus, which is surrounded with a lofty wall, thirty furlongs [τριήκοντα σταδίων = ca. 5,5 km] each way, built entirely of wood. All the houses in the place and all the temples are of the same material. Here are temples built in honour of the Grecian gods, and adorned after the Greek fashion with images, altars, and shrines, all in wood. There is even a festival, held every third year in honour of Bacchus, at which the natives fall into the Bacchic fury. For the fact is that the Geloni were anciently Greeks, who, being driven out of the factories along the coast, fled to the Budini and took up their abode with them. They still speak a language half Greek, half Scythian." (transl. Rawlinson)

Recent digs in Bel'sk 50.02° N 34.38° E near Poltava (Ukraine) have uncovered a vast city identified by Boris Shramko as Gelonus. The city's commanding ramparts and vast area of 40 square kilometers exceeded even the outlandish size reported by Herodotus. Its location at the northern edge of the Ukrainian steppe would have allowed strategic control of the north-south trade route. Judging by the finds dated to the 5th and 4th centuries BC, craft workshops and Greek pottery abounded, as well as slaves perhaps destined for Greece.

A letopys (chronicle) describes Slavic groups departing to Greece around the Gelonus area in 907.

The Ryzhanovka kurgan

A kurgan or burial mound near the village of Ryzhanovka in Ukraine, 75 miles south of Kyiv, has revealed one of the few unlooted tombs of a Scythian chieftain, one who ruled in the forest-steppe area on the western fringe of Scythian lands. There, at a date late in Scythian culture (ca. 250 - 225 BC), a formerly nomadic aristocracy had gradually started to adopt the agricultural lifestyle of its subjects: the tomb contained a mock hearth, the first ever found in a Scythian context, symbolic of the warmth and comfort of a farmhouse.

"Scythian gold"

Scythian contacts with craftsmen in Greek colonies along the northern shores of the Black Sea resulted in the famous Scythian gold adornments that feature among the most glamorous prestige artifacts of world museums. Ethnographically extremely useful as well, the gold depicts Scythian men as bearded, long-haired Caucasoids. "Greco-Scythian" works depicting Scythians within a much more Hellenic style date from a much later period, when Scythians had already become thoroughly mixed with Greeks, clouding the issue of their origins.

Scythians had a taste for elaborate personal jewelry, weapon-ornaments and horse-trappings. They executed Central-Asian animal motifs with Greek realism: winged gryphons attacking horses, battling stags, deer, and eagles, combined with everyday motifs like milking ewes.

In 2000 the touring exhibition 'Scythian Gold' introduced the North American public to the objects made for Scythian nomads by Greek craftsmen north of the Black Sea, and buried with their Scythian owners under burial mounds on the flat plains of present-day Ukraine, most of them unearthed after 1980.

In 2001, the discovery of an undisturbed royal Scythian burial-barrow illustrated for the first time Scythian animal-style gold that lacks the direct influence of Greek styles. Forty-four pounds of gold weighed down the royal couple in this burial, discovered near Kyzyl, capital of the Siberian republic of Tuva.

Post-classical ideas of "Scythia"

Owing to their reputation as promulgated by Greek historians, the Scythians served as the epitome of savagery and barbarism in the early modern period. Specifically, early modern English discourse on Ireland frequently resorted to comparisons with this people in order to confirm that the indigenous population of Ireland descended from these ancient "bogeymen", and showed themselves as barbaric as their alleged ancestors. Edmund Spenser wrote that "the Chiefest [nation that settled in Ireland] I Suppose to be Scithians ... which firste inhabitinge and afterwarde stretchinge themselves forthe into the lande as theire numbers increased named it all of themselues Scuttenlande which more brieflye is Called Scuttlande or Scotlande" (A View of the Present State of Ireland, c. 1596). As proofs for this origin Spenser cites the alleged Irish customs of blood-drinking, nomadic lifestyle, the wearing of mantles and certain haircuts and "Cryes [or wailings] allsoe vsed amongeste the Irishe which savor greatlye of the Scythyan Barbarisme". William Camden, one of Spenser's main sources, comments on this legend of origin that "to derive descent from a Scythian stock, cannot be thought any waies dishonourable, seeing that the Scythians, as they are most ancient, so they have been the Conquerours of most Nations, themselves alwaies invincible, and never subject to the Empire of others" (Britannia, 1586 etc., Engl. transl. 1610). Spenser's contemporary Shakespeare alluded to the legend that Scythians ate their parents in his play King Lear:

The barbarous Scythian

Or he that makes his generation messes

To gorge his appetite, shall to my bosom

Be as well neighbour'd, pitied, and relieved,

As thou my sometime daughter. - (Act I, Scene i)

In the second paragraph of the 1320 Declaration of Arbroath the élite of Scotland claim Scythia as a former homeland of the Scots.

In the 19th century, romantic revisionists transformed the "barbarian" Scyths of literature into the wild and free, hardy and democratic ancestors of all blond Indo-Europeans. Aside from the findings of modern archaeology and genetics, most of what subsequent generations "knew" of Scythia and Scythians remained second-hand, a series of literary conventions.

Some modern groups still claim descent from the Scythians. The Scythians feature in the national origin legends of the Celts. Archaeologists discovered in 2000 that Scythians landed several miles outside St Austell in Cornwall and their presence had an influence on the Cornish language^{[citation needed]}. Some romantic nationalist writers claim that they figured in the formation of the empire of the Medes and likewise of Caucasian Albania, the precursor in antiquity of the modern-day Azerbaijan Republic. Most famously of all, the Russians sometimes saw themselves as Scythians in 18th-century poetry, as some contemporary scholars sought to demonstrate their descent from the ancient warriors described by Herodotus. Alexander Blok drew on this tradition in his last major poem, Yes, We Are the Scyths (1920).

Notes

References

• Alekseev, A. Yu. et al., "Chronology of Eurasian Scythian Antiquities Born by New Archaeological and 14C Data". Radiocarbon, Vol .43, No 2B, 2001, p 1085-1107.
• Amanjolov, A. S., "History Of The Ancient Türkic Script", Almaty, "Mektep", 2003 (in Russian)
• Davis-Kimball, Jeannine. 2002. Warrior Women: An Archaeologist's Search for History's Hidden Heroines. Warner Books, New York. 1st Trade printing, 2003. ISBN 0-446-67983-6 (pbk).
• Gamkrelidze and Ivanov (1984). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Typological Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture (Parts I and II). Tbilisi State University.
• Harmatta, J., "Studies in the History and Language of the Sarmatians", Acta Universitatis de Attila József Nominatae. Acta antique et archaeologica Tomus XIII. Szeged 1970 [8]
• Mallory, J.P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language Archeology and Myth. Thames and Hudson. Chapter 2; and pages 51-53 for a quick reference.
• Newark, T. (1985). The Barbarians: Warriors and wars of the Dark Ages. Blandford: New York. See pages 65, 85, 87, 119-139.
• Renfrew, C. (1988). Archeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European origins. Cambridge University Press.
• Rolle, Renate, The world of the Scythians, London and New York (1989).
• Rjabchikov, S. V., The Scythians, Sarmatians, Meotians and Slavs: Sign System, Mythology, Folklore. Rostov-on-Don, 2004 (in Russian)
• Rybakov, Boris. Paganism of Ancient Rus. Nauka, Moscow, 1987 (in Russian)
• Sulimirski, T. "The Scyths," in Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2: 149-99 [9]
• Szemerényi, O., "Four Old Iranian Ethnic Names: SCYTHIAN - SKUDRA - SOGDIAN - SAKA", Vienna (1980) [10]
• Torday, Laszlo (1998). Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History. Durham Academic Press. ISBN 1-90-083803-6.
• Yatsenko, S. A., "Tamgas of Iranolingual antique and Early Middle Ages people". Russian Academy of Science, Moscow Press "Eastern Literature", in Russian)

See also

• Jats
• Agathyrsi

External links

• "Coins of Barbarous Tribes of the Northern Black Sea Region"
• Rjabchikov, Sergei V. "The Slavonic Antiquity: Scythians, Sarmatians, Meotians and Slavs" A collection of articles on deciphering of the Scythian/Sarmatian language and script.
• Rjabchikov, S.V., 2005. On Scythian, Sarmatian and Meotian Records about Thunderstorm. AnthroGlobe Journal, 2005
• Rjabchikov, S.V., 2001. The Scythian and Sarmatian Sources of the Russian Mythology and Fairy-Tales. AnthroGlobe Journal, 2001
• Scythians overview by Chris Bennet
• Livius website articles on ancient history, entry on Scythians/Sacae by Jona Lendering
• "The ethnic of the Sakas (Scythians)" by I. P'iankov
• The early burial in Tuva
• Scythian myth and culture; map
• Color illustrations of Scythian gold
• Published excavations of royal Scythian kurgan (barrow) at Chertomlyk reviewed
• all known Scythian kings listed on Regnal Chronologies
• Herodotus, Histories, Book IV - translated by Rawlinson, the 1942 edition
  • Livio Stecchini, "The Mapping of the Earth: Scythia": reconstructing the map of Scythia according to the conceptual geography of Herodotus
  • Livio Stecchini, "The Mapping of the Earth: Gerrhos"
• 1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden" Transcript
• on Sarmatian (a related Iranian group) trade and ethnic connections
• Scythia Group (a Yahoo group for discussing the Scythians)

Ryzhanovka links

• Archaeology abstract of 1997 article
• the Ryzhanovka Kurgan in Ukraine

Genetic links

• Haplogroups in India (PDF file)
• Y-Chromosome Biallelic Haplogroups